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Nuclear Fuel Cycle

The nuclear fuel cycle is the series of steps involved in producing, using, and managing nuclear fuel for electricity generation. It includes everything from mining uranium to the final disposal of spent fuel.

There are two types of cycles: open, where spent fuel is used once and disposed of, and closed, where spent fuel is reprocessed to recover useable materials.

Main Stages of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle

Front-End (Fuel Production)

  • Mining & Milling: Uranium is extracted from the earth and processed into yellowcake (U₃O₈).
  • Conversion: Yellowcake is converted into a gas, uranium hexafluoride (UF₆), for enrichment.
  • Enrichment: The uranium is enriched to increase the amount of U-235, the isotope needed for fission (typically from 0.7% to ~3–5%).
  • Fuel Fabrication: Enriched uranium is made into ceramic pellets, loaded into fuel rods, and assembled into fuel bundles for use in reactors

Use in Nuclear Reactors

Power Generation: Fuel rods are used in reactors to sustain nuclear fission, producing heat that’s converted into electricity.

Back-End (Waste Management)

  • Spent Fuel Storage: After use, fuel becomes highly radioactive and is first stored in cooling pools, then often moved to dry cask storage.
  • Reprocessing (Optional): Some countries extract reusable materials (like plutonium and uranium) from spent fuel for reuse. The U.S. generally does not.
  • Final Disposal: Waste that can’t be reused is eventually destined for permanent storage, such as in a deep geological repository, though none are yet operational in the U.S.
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